Sunday, March 17, 2013

Rape and Society

_______________________
Pratyasha Gupta
_______________________

Rape”-Though a small word with four letters, it conveys a meaning of a very horrible experience a woman undergoes. It destroys the life of its victim both social and psychological which results in her committing suicide or living the entire life with the feeling of shame, guilt, isolation and apathy that society imposes on her. I don’t know which one is worse-the death of the body or the torture of the soul. Rape and other sexual assaults are the only crime, the only atrocity in which, the victim is seen as the culprit and the real culprit, those men who are sexual offenders go without any criticism. No one in society in general, thinks or cares about the torture the victims face and willingly turn a blind eye about the fact that the torture and suffering experienced by the rape victims are more psychological than physical. In case of physical suffering it is right to blame only the rapist as the culprit, but in case of psychological suffering, the whole society, especially the people in immediate surroundings in which the victim lives after the incident share the blame. And it’s not just one or two cases in a month; it’s been like a ritual. From past few years, not a day goes by without a news report about someone or the other being raped or sexually assaulted.

Whenever a rape case catches the fancy of the media and the society at large, people react saying punish the guilty, but the question is- Who is the guilty? Who is the real culprit? Is it just the one person who commits the act, the one who thinks that every woman in the country is made for his pleasure, to fulfill his fantasy? Or the whole society, which has no idea about how many of such maniacs are hiding inside it due to the society being blind towards the offender and instead showing apathy and condemnation towards the victim?

It doesn’t mean I am not in favor to punish the guilty. He must definitely be punished, as whomever he is or whatever may be his past, under whatever circumstances he may have been raised, he always had a choice to do the right or to do the easy. Yes, it must have been very easy and definitely very enjoyable for him to pick a girl, rape her, kill/abandon her and run away but it was not right at all. I am a Woman and if you ask me, I will tell you that I am not able to forget a single incident of molestation I had faced in my life. And there is not a single woman I have come across who has not faced at least one incident of eve-teasing or molestation during their life time. Sometimes it may be your own collogues at offices or someone whom you recognize from your neighborhood and at other times, it may be some random guy on street. All the incidents might not be brutal but they hurt the victim very deeply. It is something that the victim can never forget.

If this is the state of women who have faced molestation, then is it even possible to imagine the condition of the women who have been brutally raped? As time passes by the rapist may forget the incident, but how will she, the victim (if by any chance she lives, after this horrible incident) forget the experience ever? And as a ‘responsible’ society what do we do? How do “We”, the people of the society react? We make a gossip out of it. We tell it to others with colorful phrases like “Oh that poor girl, she has been raped” or “You know what so-and-so has been raped” showing fake sympathy. Or we react by completely ending any relationship we or anybody we know had with that victim. This is a shameful reaction. These people often forget that, the raped woman could have been their spouse, their daughter or sister. The phrase “could have been a part of our own family” has become pretty popular these days but have achieved nothing. It only goes to show that these are nothing but empty words without any genuine concern or care towards the victim. Then of course there is also the fear in many household of getting shunned and abandoned by society if they are seen as remotely sympathetic or helping the victim. So ultimately, the result is,  a woman who has been raped but who wishes to start life all over again by forgetting the horrible incident, is forced by the society to re-live the experience again and again without being ever able to over-come them, forget them. This means, that after being victimized once by a person or a group of people, she becomes the victim for the life-time because of us, the society.

There are few cases where, a girl has been kidnapped, raped, then been sold, again raped, and it continued for days and sometimes months. I find myself going blank when I think about such incidents; I don’t know what to write. The pain of the victim here is beyond my imagination. I don’t understand how a person, a ‘man’ can be so sick to involve in such a heinous act. Does he really deserve to be called a “man”? And knowing that this kind of people are living among us, gives me shrills.

Every other day we get to hear from one or the other politicians, educationists or even the common men and women of the neighborhood give out flimsy reasons for sexual crimes like women are at fault because they wear revealing clothes or that the girl who was raped was of questionable character etc. I have few simple questions for such people. What about villages? Are they free from rapes? Women at villages mostly wear either sarees or salwar suits.Why do  they also face the same assaults as Urban women? And what about kids and older women, what revealing clothes they may wear to get raped?  Do small children understand anything about sex? What about some of the Muslim women who wear Hijab and Burqa, all their life and still get raped? Therefore, there is no guarantee that if the woman is all covered up, she wouldn’t be raped. Women will continue to face sexual assaults till the time society keeps forwarding such excuses, till the time, they are going to be blamed for it. As long as society does not stand with the woman, who is a victim, support her, support her fight to retain her honor, I do not think there is any solution at all. All the laws passed and implemented will become useless, if a change in society’s attitude towards women is not brought.  Until the time, society does not consider women are its integral part, and honor their freedom, their dignity, until every person both men and women understand their duties and perform it, the issue of sexual assaults or any other kind of crime will not end.

Recently as many cases of rapes came to light, bizarre commentaries of our leaders began to catch the headlines as well. One was “lowering marriage age can stop rapes”. Basically the idea behind this was to provide every guy, a girl, as soon as possible so that instead of him picking up a girl from outside, he will have one as his own property to rape and assault whenever he wish for and there will be no complaints as everything will happen within the ambit of ‘marriage’. Firstly, the very idea of sexual abuse in the name of marriage is disgusting to say the least. Secondly, even if for arguments sake we accept the proposition that marriage is solution to rape, we need to ask ourselves- Whether all the men who committed rape were unmarried? Whether the women who faced the abuse were all unmarried? The answer is a straight “NO”. Marriages and Rapes have no co-relation.

Another statement by a politician that made headlines was by Mamata Banerjee, the chief minister of West Bengal who said “Rapes happening because men and women are interacting more freely”. The statement makes no sense at all. She is a woman and she is a politician. Nobody can survive in public life without interacting with other people both men and women. Not all interaction between opposite sexes is about sex. People interact for number of reasons both personal and professional. It is very immature to suggest that free interaction leads to sexual crimes. Are our leaders suggesting that our society be talibanized, where all personal rights and liberty of women are violated? Because it is horrible if we expect our girls not to interact with people or cover themselves from head to toe or get married in their teenage.

There are many more such commentaries passed by our leaders every other day. But all these statements prove one thing for sure that this is the real face of our society as these people in power are selected by us and not by some foreigners. We came to know about their opinions because these people are well known personalities. Their opinions in a sense reflect the mindset of the entire society. It is the society which has supported and sustained these leaders and their prejudiced, immature and highly disturbing mentality. And as long as this mindset of looking down on womenfolk, blaming them for every issue, trying to control them and exploit them prevails in the society, nothing no law, no sermons, no protests can stop the rapes and other sexual crimes from happening. 

The next issue I would like to write about is the kind of movies & songs the Bollywood is producing. I am not against the movie industry as a whole, but only to its increasing portrayal of women as Sexual objects.  The songs with a vulgar lyrics and an actress dancing to that surrounded by 20 to 30 people lurking for her has become very common in the recently produced movies. This portrayal of women is not only offending to women but also encourages such views and opinions that already exist in the society. No accountability and moral responsibility is exhibited in the movies that are made. I believe that, Bollywood is leading the society in a wrong direction just for the sake of business. Why I said leading is because there are lot many people who are inspired from these movies, their actors and actresses.  Many of them try to ape the things that they see in the movies. Further, the Bollywood’s portrayal of women as a sexual object in a sense justifies and reinforces the perversions of many people who view women as nothing but objects to be used for pleasure and for producing kids.

It’s not totally the mistake of Bollywood as such because they are making and selling such movies because people at large are buying it. But should the movie-making be reduced to pure business taking art, creativity and moral responsibility out of the equation? Who is making sex look uglier day by day? Who is presenting sex as the one and only purpose of life? Visual mediums do leave a deeper imprint on the viewer’s mind. Should there be no accountability and responsibility attached to those who produce the movies?

After the Delhi bus rape case, lots of questions are rising in my mind; the most striking one is “what if I was one of them who saw her unconscious in the need of help, would I have helped her?” It’s very easy to say a yes but the truth is I just don’t know the answer. But one thing is for sure that I don’t want to see any girl in such a horrible state ever. And if I do, I don’t want to back off. Just giving a rape victim names like “Damini, nirbhaya, jagruti, amanat” or lighting candles to protest is not going to solve the problem. Helping her when she is in need is a must. I wonder what the people might be thinking after knowing that the girl that night they avoided was tortured and was in need of help and now is dead. Are they able to live a normal life? Don’t they feel guilty? Don’t they fear that one day one of their family members may suffer in the same way? 


As a girl my only request to the society is that when you find a girl who has been raped, try not to make judgement about her character, there is no girl on earth who would like to be treated as the girl in the “Delhi Bus rape case” has been treated. Even the very thought of such incident scares the hell out of a girl. She is not responsible if some people are thinking filthy about her; it is such people who always find an excuse to sexual harass some girl or defend somebody who does it. The only thing any woman will expect from the society is for them to understand that even she wants to live freely without any fear of any kind and it’s the society’s responsibility to make the world safe for her. Even if she is a prostitute, one has no right to mistreat her. She is a part of society and she deserves your respect. It is my sincere request to every person of the society both men and women alike- if you know some girl who has been raped, then stop treating her as if she is diseased, try to help her in rebuilding her life, inspire her to move on, if possible help in punishing the rapist and make sure that your son or brother doesn’t become one. And if you know someone who is mistreating any girl, take a stand about it? Hiding your girls inside some cabinet wouldn’t save them, if you really wish to save them, help them in living a life as normally as you do. If you do only this much I believe you can change the society at least a little bit. After all “We Are The Society”.

Saturday, January 12, 2013

The Two Aspects of Creation- Maya and Lila

 __________________
Nithin Sridhar
__________________

One of the questions that seekers, philosophers, scientists and theologian’s world over have involved themselves from time immemorial is about the origin of the universe. The views vary from our Universe coming out of Big Bang to creationist views of world being created one fine day by God. It is only in Hindu religion that one finds a comprehensive analysis and explanation of various aspects and realms of Cosmos and its origin.

To understanding about the Creation/Origin of the Universe, it is important to understand the relationship between World and God according to Hindu philosophy. God and World, the Creator and the Created are not two distinct entities but only they appear to be so. In the Vyavahrika plane(1) (the Mundane/Relative), the Man, World and the God appear and function as distinct from one another, but in Paramarthika plane (The Absolute plane) there is only One, call it God or Brahman or Atman. In other words, God is the sum total of all existence.

Chandogya Upanishad proclaims “Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma(2)” meaning “Everything is Brahman/God”. All the existence, the entire cosmos, everything that ever existed is nothing but Brahman. The same has been more explicitly mentioned in Taittiriya Upanishad-

“yatO vA imAni bhUtAni jAyantE
yEna jATAni jIvanti
yat prayant-yabhi-sam-vishanti
tadvijigyasasva tad brahmeti” (3)

“From which all the creatures (bhUta) are born, being born by which they sustain and into which they merge back, Know that as Brahman”.


The world/cosmos with all its multiplicities are not separate from God but have their origin in him and they sustain in him and merge back into him. Brahman is both the material and intelligent cause for this universe. To accomplish any work (Karya) - For example creating a pot, a base material (Soil) called as “Upadana” in scriptures and a person (the potter) who accomplishes the task called as “Karta” is needed.

Shastras term this as “Upadana Karana/material cause” and “Nimmita Karana/Intelligent or Efficient cause”. In case of the Universe, Brahman is both the Upadana Karana and the Nimmita Karana. That is, God does not create any universe separate from it but only has manifested it out of his own-self in other-words God has himself become Cosmos.

To the question, “How exactly does Brahman manifest Universe?” The Shastras explain two ways in which an already existing entity (Karana/Cause) has become another entity (Karya/Effect) - The Parinama Vada and the Vivarta Vada. “Parinama vada(4)” refers to a real transformation of an object into another object, Ex: Milk turning in Curd, mud becoming pot etc. “Vivarta vada” refers to an apparent transformation of one object into another, Ex: a rope being mistaken for snake, a mirage in a desert etc.

In the case of Universe, the “Parinama vada” does not hold. If God has indeed undergone complete and real transformation and become Cosmos, the way milk becomes curd, then there would have been no difference between God and World in Vyavaharika state. Then in Vyvaharika State, there would not have been any God instead only sensory world. Just as once Milk turns into Curd, it ceases to be milk and cannot turn back into milk, so also God will cease to exist once it transforms completely into Universe.But such a materialistic view is not supported by Hindu Shastras which proclaim Brahman as being- “Nithya(Eternal), Nishkalam(Without parts/divisions), Nishkriyam (without action) Shantham(Calm), Niravadhyam (Flawless), Niranjanam(Stainless)”. Instead, Vedanta Philosophy explains that the Brahman manifests Universe, just as rope appears snake (Vivarta vada). That is, there is only an apparent transformation of God into Universe. In case of snake, rope was the Upadana Karana/Material cause and in case of universe, Brahman is the Upadana Karana. This phenomenon of Apparent Manifestation is termed as “Maya” and the Power of Brahman to achieve it is termed as “Maya Shakti”. Adi Shankaracharya in Maya Panchakam says-

“nirupama nithya niramshakeepyakhande
mayi chiti sarva nikalpanaadishunye |
ghatayati jagadeesha-jeeva-bhedam
tvaghatita ghatanaapatiiyasi maaya ||”(5)

In Brahman who is Unique, Eternal, without parts, Absolute, It is Maya which creates the distinctions of Man, World and God. There is nothing impossible for Maya.


Hence, it is Brahman who creates/manifests this universe using his power of Maya. Hence, Lord Krishna was described as Mayapati- Lord of Maya.  In Bhagvad Gita, Lord Krishna says-

“ajo ’pi sann avyayatma
bhutanam isvaro ’pi san |
prakritim svam adhisthaya
sambhavamy atma-mayaya ||”(6)

Though I am birthless, undecaying by nature, and the Lord of beings, (still) by subjugating My Prakriti, I take birth by means of My own Maya.


Lord Krishna, an Avatara of God himself is proclaiming that he creates the whole universe by his power of Maya. But now a question arises, why did Brahman need to manifest this Apparent Universe? To achieve what goal?

The Shastras say that for God, the whole manifestation is just Lila/ a Divine play. It is a spontaneous manifestation for Brahman. This manifestation is not an activity/kartattva as in Paramarthika state, there is no duality of Karta and Karya. Brahman himself is Karta-doer, Karana-cause and the Karya-activity. Hence, the whole manifestation of Universe has been described as Lila- a spontaneous play. Further, because it is a Lila and not a Karya, there is no end goal or results to achieve because Brahman intends to achieve nothing as he is everything. It is Brahman’s very Svabhava/nature to continuously manifest and dissolve and re-manifest the cosmos. Hence, God is also called as “Lalita” meaning “She who plays” by Shaktas stressing the fact that playing Lila is God’s very own Svabhava.

Many people have this misconception that Maya and Lila are different and at times contradictory. But it is not so. They both refer to same phenomenon but only stressing on two different aspect of it. Whereas the term “Maya” stresses that Brahman is the Upadana Karana of this Universe, the term “Lila” stresses that Brahman is the “Nimitta Karana” of the Universe. “Maya” answers the question “How the Universe was created” and “Lila” answers the question “Why the Universe was created”.

References-

1.For detailed explanation of Vyavaharika and Paramartika states, refer my article “The Two Realities”.
2.Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1.
3.Taittiriya Upanishad 3.1.3.
4.There is one more doctrine called “Arambavada/Asat-Karya-vada” which says that, an object which was non-existant before was newly created. This view about Universe is held by Nyaya School which propounds that Universe was created by Ishwara by using Anu/atoms. Here, Anu is the upadana karana and Ishwara is nimitta karana. But, Vedanta Shastras and Upanishads does not accept this doctrine. According to the Shastras, World existed in potential/sukshma form in Brahman from before.  Hence, Brahman only manifests Universe and does not actually create it.
5.Maya Panchakam Verse 1
6.Bhagvad Gita 4.6

Sunday, December 30, 2012

Jainism In Karnataka

___________________
Nithin Sridhar
____________________

(This article was published in esamskriti.com in June, 2010)

Jainism has been a small, but one of the most influential religious tradition in India. It has been a major cultural, philosophical, social, and political force since dawn of civilization in India. Jainism is often referred to as Jain Dharma or Shraman Dharma or the religion of Nirgantha by ancient texts. It is one of the oldest Shramana traditions, that is Ascetic tradition still surviving in India. Today, with 4 million population (2001 census), Jains are spread throughout India. They are present prominently in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Karnataka, Madya Pradesh and Bundelkhand have considerable population of Jains.

 In the Rig -Veda there are clear references to Rishabhdev, the 1st Tirthankar, and to Aristanemi, the 22nd Tirthankar. The Yajur-veda also mentions the names of three Tirthankars, viz. Rishabhdev, Ajitanath and Aristanemi. Rishabha has also been mentioned in Bhagavata-Puran (1). Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankar, is the earliest Jain leader who can be reliably dated. According to scholars, he probably lived in the 9th Century BC. This pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar may have given rise to Buddhism. It has been said that, when Siddharta Gautama, left his home, he went into forest for penance, and he moved above naked and he plucked his own hairs and lived like Jaina Niggantha(2).

The beginning of Jainism in Karnataka has been a matter of speculation. Legend has it that Mahavira visited Karnataka and initiated King Jivandhara of Hemanagada country of the Kuntala (Karnataka) region and this probably accounts for the early beginnings of Jainism in Karnataka.

 The advent of Jainism in Karnataka is assigned to 4th century BC by a well-known Jaina tradition. It states that, Badrabhahu, of the line of pontiffs started by Mahavira and his royal disciple Chandragupta Maurya, migrated to South along with many followers due to famine in north and settled in Shravana-Belagola and breath their last in Chandragiri, by Sallekhana(Death by Fasting).

Chandragupta Basadi at Shravana-Belagola though a latter day structure, bears its connections with the tradition. But, unfortunately no epigraphic or literary evidence is available to corroborate this Bhadrabahu-Chandragupta tradition. The first mention of this tradition is found in Shravana-Belagola epigraph of 7th century. “Brhatkhosha” of Harisena of 931 AD also mentions of this tradition. Narasimhachar, who has examined the sources in detail, believes that, this tradition has some basis to stand. (3)

Historically, Jainism received huge patronage at hands of Karnataka Kings, royal families, merchants and even common men. Large number of monuments present throughout the state is the visible examples of Jain influence. A large number of epigraphical references also exist mentioning about patronage and grants received from Kings and Queens to Jain faith. Apart from this, contribution of Jains for Kannada literature too is immense.

Political position of Jainism under Karnataka Kings:

Beginning from time of Kadambas of Banavasi, until Vijayanagara period, Jainism received generous grants from Kannada monarchs.

Kadambas of Banavasi (345-525CE): The earliest grant from Kadambas comes from the time of Mrigesavarman(his fourth regnal year)(4). The copper plate mentions the grant of an entire village for the benefits of Jain Gods (Bhagavat, Arhat and Mahajinendra). He also gave thirty-three Nivartanas of land (in modern Halsi in Belguam) to Yapaniyas (Jainas) (5). The same copper plate also states that, Jaina ascetics must be fed during rainy seasons. Kadambas have to their credit of inaugurating the tradition of grants to Jainas.

The Gangas of Talkad (350-1000 CE): Tradition connects origin of Gangas to a Jaina teacher Simhanandi. Shripurusha gave Devanahalli grant to Jinalaya and Narasimharajapura grant to a Jaina Caityalaya.(6) Prithvipati Ist’s Billur grant records the gift of twelve villages on the banks of Lakshmanathirtha to Satyavakya Jinaalaya at Pannekadanga.(7)
There are many inscriptions showing huge grants made by Rachamalla IV, and his minister Chavundaraaya.

Chalukyas of Badami(6th century): In spite of being staunch Hindus, they extended patronage to Jainas. The existence pf a Jaina cave by side of Vaishnava cave at Badami, is the best example of tolerance of Chalukyas. During the period of Kirthivarma II, Kaliyamma built a Jinalaya at Annigeri. (8) Sendraka Durgasakti donated lands to Sankha-Jinalaya at Puligere(9). Vijayaditya gave away village Seribaluru near Laksmeshwar.

The Rashtrakutas(8th century) and Chalukyas of Kalyana(12th century):
Altekar characterizes the age of Rashtrakutas as the most flourishing period in history of Jainism in Deccan. Amoghavarsha I was more a Jaina than a Hindu (10). Many of officers of Rashtrakutas were Jainas. The Rattas of Saundatti were staunch supporters of Jainism. Altekar estimates that at least one third of total populations of Deccan during this period were Jainas(11).

Chalukyas of Kalyana patronized all religions. Taila, the founder of Chalukya dynasty was patron of great poet Ranna(who was a Jaina). Satyashraya has a Jaina teacher as Rajguru. Attimabbe constructed many basadis. King gave golden Kalasha to one such basadi at Lokkigundi (12). Shantinatha, a minister of Someshwara II built Mallikamoda Shantinatha basadi at Baligrama (13)

The Hoysalas(10th-14th century): Hoysalas are traditionally connected with Jainism since origin. Sala, himself was a Jain. Ereyanga is said to have made many grants at Belagola. Vinayaditya II built large number of Jaina shrines. According to Belur inscription, Vishnuvardhana received prasadam of God Vijaya Parshwa from Jinalaya and made provision for performance of ceromonies of Vijaya Parshwa and 24 Thirthankaras. His wife Shantaladevi is described as jewel of Jainism (14). Many of his generals including Mariyane Dandanayaka, Punisa and Boppa were all Jains. These disprove the allegation that Vishnuvardhana after his conversion to Vaishnavism ignored Jainas. Narasimha I though a Vaishnavite made grants to Sravanabelagola. Ballala II built Nagara Jinalaya at Dorasamudra. Patronage to Jainism continued in the days of Narasimha and Ramanatha.

Vijayanagara Period (1336-1646 CE): With establishment of Vijayanagara kingdom, emphasis was more on Hinduism and Jainism received great setback. Yet, Jainas received some grants. Harihara II patronized Jaina ministers. He also constructed Kuntha Jinaalaya at Vijayanagara (15). Shravanabelagola inscription of 1442 mentions grants for Gommateshwara.

These shows that Jainas enjoyed patronage from Kings and were a dominant political force in Karnataka.

Jainism and Veerashaivism:


A cursory look into the philosophies of Jainas and Veerashaivas (their scriptures, Agamas,mythology etc) shows the commona concepts like Avidya, Acharanga, Karmikamala, Dyana, Paapa-Punya, Doctrines of Karma etc. Veerashaivas use Lingam as external symbol and Jainas wear Upasakasutra as external symbol.

For example, Jinasenacharya declares in Mahapurana- “Ahimsa Paramo Dharmaha, Ahimsa Lakshanam Dharmam”(Ahimsa is highest Dharma, and Ahimsa is indicative of Dharma). Similarly, Basava says in one of his vachanas “Dayavillada Dharmadavudidayya”(No Dharma without Compassion).

Vattakeracharya recommends Himsaviratti(Non-violence), Brahmacharya(celibacy), Amrashavada(good speech), Asteya(non-stealing) in his book Mulachara.
Similarly, Veerashaiva vachanas say “Kala Beda, Kolabeda, Husiya Nudiya beda”(Don’t steal, Don’t kill, Don’t lie).

Further, Jaina concepts of Samyagdharshana, Jnana and Chariya are the Samayagdharshanas of Veerashaivas also. The Veerashaiva Pancha Acharas viz., Shivachara, Gaachara etc agree with Jaina Pancha acharas viz., Darshanachara, Jnanachara etc (16).  These illustrate the commonality between different indigenous philosophical streams.

Kannada Literature:

Kannada literature is often classified into Jaina, Vaishnava and Veerashaiva literatures recognizing the prominence of these three faiths in giving form to, and fostering, classical expression of the language (17). Starting with the Kavirajamarga (c. 850), and until the middle of the 12th century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed by the Jains, who found eager patrons in the Chalukya, Ganga, Rashtrakuta and Hoysala kings (18). Jainas dominated Kannada literature till 12th century.

The earliest existing prose piece in old Kannada is a Jain text Vaddaradhane ("Worship of Elders", 9th century) by Shivakotiacharya(19).Jain writers Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature", Pampa wrote “Adi Purana” in 941 AD, which narrates the life history of Rishabdev, the first Thirthankar of Jainism. Ponna wrote “Shantipurana”, a biography of the 16th Jain Tirthankar Shantinatha. Ranna's poetic writings reached their zenith with “Sahasa Bhima Vijaya”.
These clearly show the strong influence of Jainas in Kannada literature.

Architecture:

Jain contribution to Architecture is immense. The monolith statue of 60 feet, the famous Gomateshwara statue, in Shravanabelagola is the living example of Jain contribution to architecture and scupture. Shravanabelagola, Chandragiri, Indragiri, Moodabidiri, Karkala, Dharmasthala, Venur, Gerosoppa, Hadolli, Bilgi, Lakkundi,  are some of the important centers of Jain monuments in Karnataka.

The earliest references to Jaina monuments are found in Halasi and Devagiri inscriptions of Kadamba period. According to Gudnapur inscription Kadamba King Ravivarma built a temple, kamajinalaya for Manmatha. Ganga minister and commander Chamundaraya in honour of Lord Bahubali built it. Badami Chalukyas built a cave temple dedicated to Adinatha Thirthankara. Another Jaina cave is in Aihole. Structural temples built by them include-Meguti Jinalaya at Aihole and the jinalaya built by Kumkuma Mahadevi at Lakshmesvar.

The Jaina monuments of the Rashtrakutas period are found at Pattadakal, Malkhed, Lakshmeshwar, Koppal and Bankura, of North Karnataka. The Neminatha basadi at Malkhed, the capital of the Rashtrakutas belongs to ninth century A. D. Jaina temple at Naregal is the biggest Rashtrakuta temple in Karnataka. It was built during the period of Krishna III, by Padmabbarasi, the queen of Ganga Permadi Bhutayya in 950 A.D. Similarly many Jinalayas were built by Kalyani Chalukyas too including Brahma Jinalaya at Lakkundi and Sankha Jinalya at Lakshmeshwar. Chaturmukha basadi, Neminatha basadi, Vardhamana basadi and two Parsvanatha basadis located at Gerusoppa are important jain monuments built During Vijayanagara period.

These show, the enormous contribution of Jainas in every aspect of life of Karnataka people.


References-
1-The Bhāgavata says: “In the womb of Merudevi, wife of Nabhi, Rishaba had his eighth avatara. He showed himself in a form that is to be worshipped by all Shramanas.”
2-Majjima Nikaya: Maha Siha Nada Sutta, mentioned in “Buddha and Mahavira: A Philosophical Perspective” by Dr.T.G. Kalghatgi
3-Epigraphia Carnatica, Sacred Books.
4-Indian Antiquary, Vol. 7, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
5-Ibid,
6-Ibid, Vol. 2, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
7-Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. 1
8-Epigraphia Indica, Vol.32
9-Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
10-Ibid
11-Ibid
12-South Indian Inscriptions, Vol.11
13-Shikripur 136, mentioned in Karnaraka Kings and Jainism, Dr. A.V.Narasumha Murthy
14-Soraba inscriptions.
15-South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 9
16-Jainism and Veerashaivism, Dr.G.Marulasiddaiah
17-Narasimhacharya (1934)
18-Ibid
19-Sastri (1955)

Sunday, December 09, 2012

The Two Ways of Performing Action


________________________
Nithin Sridhar
________________________

“Karma” or “Action” is the very foundation of our existence. A second does not go by without anybody performing any action. People are continuously involved in performing one or the other tasks- eating, drinking, talking, driving etc. But action does not refer to physical activity alone. Every word, every thought that arise in the mind represents an action being performed. The whole universe works on the principle action and reaction.

The Hindu Shastras/Scriptures call this phenomenon which forms the very basic functioning principle of the cosmos as “Karma”. Every situation, good or bad a person faces in his life is the fruits of his past actions (Karma Phala). Every person or animal, a person encounters or comes in contact with, is result of some Karmic bond (called in scriptures as “Rina Bandha”) present between them. Many people often understand this negatively to mean “Destiny” or “No-free Will”. But, that is only a misconception. On the other hand, Karmic Law is based on complete Free-Will a person has to make choices, to take decisions in every situation he faces. The Karma Phala (Fruits of action) one gets is entirely depended on the Karmas one performs. As the saying goes, “As you sow, so you reap” the whole Universe is based on this Karmic law of action and its fruits.

The Shastras speak of the two ways a person can perform the Karmas- Sakaama and Nishkaama. “Sakaama” refers to performing an action with an eye towards the fruits that action will bore. Such action may lead a person to temporary happiness/Sukha or to temporary sorrow/dukka depending upon whether the Karmic fruit was as per the expectation of the person or not. On the other hand, the Karmas performed in Nishkaama way, i.e performing an action with the sense of duty without expecting any result, such a person will find inner contentment irrespective of the Karmic fruits.
“Sakaama Karmas” increases attachment to the sensory world. As there is no end to the desires of the person, he will be eternally pursuing one desire after another performing countless number of Karmas. He will be ever-struck in this Karmic cycle of Sukha-Dukka. Brahmavaivartha Purana (1) says thus-

Avashyam eva bhoktavyam krutakarma shubha ashubam |
Naa bhuktam kshiyate karma kalpa-koti-shaitairapi ||

A person will definitely enjoy the fruits of his action; it may be good or bad; for without giving the results, an action does not die out even after billions of years.

Hence, these karmas are also called as “Bandhaka Karmas”, actions that increases the bondage to the sensory world. If the same Karmas that cause Bandhana/Bondage are performed in Nishkama way, surrendering the fruits of action to God, giving up one’s sense of doership of action, such Karmas will become “Mochaka”-a way to Liberation from this karmic cycle of birth and death. Shastras say-

Krutena Karmana | Akrutena Mokshaha ||

Performing action leads to Karma, Performing Actionless action leads to Moksha.

“Krutena” means “performing action”. Any activity performed with the sense of identification with doing it, will invariably lead to the bondage of Karmic cycle. Even though literally “Akrutena” means “Not performing Action”, the real meaning is not “Inaction” but what can be described as “action-less action”, i.e performing an action without Ahamkara-sense of I-ness of performing it. In other words, surrendering to God the Action, its fruits and the sense of doership of it.

In Bhagvad Gita, Sri Krishna describes this Nishkaama Karma as “Yogah karmasu kausalam(2)”- Yoga is the action perfected. Further he explains what he means by Yoga as thus-

yoga-sthah kuru karmani sangam tyaktva dhananjaya |
siddhy-asiddhyoh samo bhutva samatvam yoga ucyate ||(3)

O Arjuna, abandon all attachment to success or failure and perform your duty by being steadfast in yoga. Such evenness of mind is called yoga.

“Samatvam Yoga Uchyate” means “performing action in a detached manner”. Krishna is asking Arjuna to become a “Stitahprajna”- one who is not affected by external factors. This yoga is called as “Nishkaama Karma” or “Actionless action”. No spiritual progress is possible for a person without him giving up his Ahamkara(I-ness) and Mamahkaara (mine-ness) and learning to perform Nishkaama karma with the sense of Dharma (Duty) and Tyaga (sacrifice).

“Moksha”or Final Liberation is not possible without attaining “Atma Sakshatkara”. But this cannot be attained without the Karmas. Sage Agastya in “YogaVashishta” lucidly explains this thus-

ubhabhyam eva paksabhyam yatah khe paksinam gatih |
tathai va jnana karmabhyam jayate paramam padam ||(4)

Just as a bird flies with its two wings, so also an enquirer flies to goal of Self-Realization through the co-ordination of two wings of Jnana and Karma.

Whatever may be the path, a spiritual seeker takes but he must develop Samabhavatva (treating everything in same manner without likes and dislikes) and perform Nishkaama Karmas. Only when a person performs the Karmas prescribed in Shastras (vihita karmas) in such a Nishkaama way, will he achieve Chitta Shuddhi-purification of mind and be able to develop the competencies necessary for Jnana Sadhana.

Shastras classify Karmas into four categories- Nithya, Naimitta, Kamya and Nishiddha. Nithya Karmas refer to daily activities that a person is supposed to follow like Sandhyavandana. Naimmitta refers to Karmas performed on specific occasions. Kamya refers to Karmas done to fulfill specific desires. Nishiddha refers to Karmas that are prohibited like Killing etc. A person must first practice Apara/Bhedha bhakti (5) by implementing the Karmas prescribed in the Shastras in a Nishkaama way and by avoiding the Karmas prohibited by the Shastras. Only such a practice will make him develop the surrendering required to be able to give up his Ahamkara and Mamah-Kaara. This results in Chitta-Shuddhi. Without performing Nishkaama Karma, Chitta Shuddhi is not possible.

A person who has thus purified his mind will develop qualities like Viveka(spiritual discrimination), Vairagya(dispassion), Titaksha(forbearance)(6) etc. Only such a person is eligible for practicing Jnana Sadhana. He should then approach a Sadguru and practice the Sravana Chatushtaya (the four fold spiritual practice)- Sravana ,Manana , Nidhidhyasa  and Atma-Sakshatkara.

Sravana and Manana refers to listening and internalizing the teachings imparted by one’s Guru. A shishya is expected to do further reading of the Shastras on the said subject and get cleared of the doubts that arises in his mind. The Guru will guide the disciple slowly towards Jnana by clearing one by one all the doubts that arise inside the disciple. After intellectually understanding the Guru’s words the shishya must practice Nidhidhyasa- Meditation and Contemplation as instructed by his Guru. By sincerely practicing the Sadhana’s instructed by the Guru, the Shishya will attain Atma-Shakshatkara.

Many people have this misconception that performing rituals alone (Karma Anushtana) can lead a seeker to Moksha and practice of Jnana Sadhana is not needed. But it is not so. In Vivekachudamni, Adi Shankara clears this doubt thus (7)-

Cittasya shuddhaye karma na tu vastupalabdhaye |
vastusiddhirvicharena na kincit-karma-kotibihi ||

Actions cause purification of the mind but they do not, by themselves, cause the attainment of Reality. The Self-Realization is brought about only by Self-Enquiry/Jnana Sadhana and not in the least by even ten million acts (alone).

Hence the Karma Anushtana of the rituals and practices done in a Sakaama way does not lead to Moksha but instead it will increase the bondage to the material world. But if these Karmas are done in Nishkaama way, it will lead to the purification of the mind of the sadhaka who will attain the qualities like Viveka etc. And these competencies will enable him to perform Jnana Sadhana Anushtana and achieve Atma Sakshatkara and hence Moksha.

Footnotes-

1. Brahmavaivartha Purana 1.44.74

2. Bhagvad Gita 2.50

3. Bhagvad Gita 2.48

4. Yoga Vashista 1.1.7.8

5. For more information about classification of Bhakti, refer the article “The Two Stages of Devotion”.

6. For more information on Sadhana Chatushtaya-Four Competencies, refer the article “The Two Paths of Life”.

7. Vivekachoodamani, Verse 11
 

Tuesday, November 27, 2012

The Two Stages of Devotion


_________________
Nithin Sridhar
_________________

Bhakti or devotion is a concept which is found throughout the world in one form or the other. From Christian prayers and Islamic namaz to Hindu puja and bhajans, elements of Bhakti are present in all the religions. Hindu scriptures define Bhakti as “Parama Prema-rupa Amruta Svarupa cha” (1). “Prema” means “Love”. Every person has loved someone or experienced love in one form or the other. Love between two people creates a bond, an attachment between them. It results in a person experiencing both happiness and sorrow. But, Bhakti is not just normal love but it is “Parama Prema rupa”-“Supreme form of love”. It is called “supreme” because it neither causes attachment to sensory world nor traps a person in a never ending cycle of happiness and sorrow. Instead it fills his life with Bliss (Ananda). Hence Bhakti is called “Amruta Svarupa”. A Bhakta/devotee is one who completely and selflessly surrenders himself to his object of devotion. 

Hindu scriptures speak about two stages of Bhakti-
  
                         1. "Apara Bhakti” is the “lower” stage of Bhakti. It is also called as “Bheda Bhakti”. 
                         2. "Para Bhakti” is the “higher” stage of Bhakti. It is also called as “Abheda Bhakti”.

“Bheda” means “difference”. Bheda bhakti refers to devotion wherein the Bhakta-worshipper and Ishwara-the object of worship are distinct. A devotee considers God as the creator and the Man and the World as the created. He is completely rooted in Vyavaharika Jnana(2). Hence such a Bhakti is also called as Dvaita Bhakti. On the other hand, the “Abheda Bhakti” which is higher stage of Bhakti is exactly opposite to the lower stage. “Abheda” means “No difference”. As the name states, in this stage, there is no duality of Bhakta and Ishwara. A devotee has developed an understanding of Paramarthika Satya(2) and sees no difference between his True self and God.

Prahalada, the son of Hiranyakashipu speaks about nine of types of devotional services that can be practiced as follows-

sravanam kirtanam vishnoh smaranam pada-sevanam|
arcanam vandanam dasyam sakhyam atma-nivedanam||(3)

“Hearing, chanting, remembering, serving the feet, offering worship, offering prayers, serving as a servant, becoming the best friend and surrendering one’s ownself to Vishnu (God).”

Sravanam, Kirthanam and Smaranam refer to Hearing, chanting and remembering about God. People in Bhakti will always love to hear about God and his play-Lila and indulge in chanting mantras and singing songs praising the God and his various manifestations. They spend every moment of their life remembering God. They try to see God in everything they do. “Pada sevanam” and “Dasyam” literally means serving at feet of God and serving God as his servant respectively. They refer to performing all the action as a service to God by surrendering at his feet. “Archanam” and “Vandanam” refers to offering worship and prayers to God with proper rituals and offerings. The offerings (4) may be five (Panchopachar) or sixteen (Shodashopachar) in number. “Sakhyam” refers to treating God as one’s best friend. The devotee here shares a bond of friendship with his deity whereas the bond is as that of master and servant in Dasya Bhakti. These eight devotional services involve external symbols and expressions. A bhakta while practicing these services see’s God in everything except his own self and he desires to be near God, at his feet. These kind of devotional services are called Bheda Bhakti.

Prahalada also speaks about a Ninth type of devotional service. He calls it “Atma Nivedanam”-Offering one’s own True Self to God. In this Bhakti, a devotee is not satisfied by staying near God. He wants to completely merge his identity in God. Just as a river merge in ocean, so also a devotee wishes to merge in God. Such Bhakti where there is no duality of a worshipper and worshipped is called Abheda Bhakti.

Similarly, Sage Narada speaks about 11 forms of Bhakti in his Bhakti Sutras as follows-

Gunamahatmyasakti, rupasakti, pujasakti, smaransakti, dasyasakti, sakhyasakti vatsalyasakti, kantasakti, atmanivedanasakti, tanmanyasakti, paramvirahassakti, rupaekadhapiekadashdham bhavati || (5)

“Although Bhakti is one, it becomes manifested in eleven forms- devotion towards God's glorious qualities, devotion towards His form and beauty, worshiping Him, to remembering Him, to serving Him, to love him as a friend, to caring for Him as a parent, to dealing with Him as a lover, to surrendering one's whole self to Him, to being absorbed in thought of Him, and to experiencing pain of separation from Him.”

 “Gunamahatmyasakti” refers to Bhakti wherein a devotee is enamored with different qualities manifested by God. He likes to listen to, contemplate and talk about God’s various Lila. “Rupashakti” refers to Bhakti wherein, a Bhakta is attracted to some specific form of God. He does upasana on particular form like that of Krishna or Shiva and perceives the whole cosmos as manifestation from that specific form. “Pujasakti” is nothing but “Archanam” that Prahalada speaks about. To Prahalada’s “Dasyam” and “Sakhyam”, Sage Narada adds two more forms- “Vatsalya” and “Kaanta”. “Vatsalyam” refers to perceiving God in the form of a child or that of a Mother/Father. It is the Love and attachment present between that of Parents and Children. “Kaantasakti” refers to loving God as a lover/spouse. 

These Nine forms of Bhakti are lower stage of Bhakti i,e Bheda Bhakti. “Atmanivedanasakti”, “Tanmayasakti” and “Paramavirahasakti” belongs to higher stage of Bhakti i,e Abheda Bhakti.
As explained earlier, “Atmanivedana” refers to “complete surrendering of everything including one’s ownself to God”. “Tanmayata” is the final stage of “Atmanivedana”, it refers to complete merging of Self in Brahman, the Two becoming one. The Bhakta merging and becoming one with Ishwara is Tanmayata. “Viraha” refers to “separation/pain of separation”. The Bhakta faces extreme pain because of his separation from God. He continuously desires to become one with the object of his devotion. Such Bhakti where a devotee continuously bears the pains of separation and desires to be united with God is “Paramavirahasakti”.

For a spiritual practitioner both Bheda Bhakti and Abheda Bhakti are very important. Many modern day Bhakti proponents concentrate only on lower stage of Bheda Bhakti while completely rejecting Abheda Bhakti. Similarly Neo-Vedantins seem to ignore the Bheda Bhakti concentrating only on Abheda Bhakti. But, both sides fail to understand that Bheda and Abheda are two stages of same Bhakti and both are very vital for one’s spiritual progress.

Bheda Bhakti facilitates a person to purify his mind and give up his Aham-kaara and Mamah-kaara. A person by practicing devotion by using external symbols and rituals will learn to surrender his actions, the doership of actions and the fruits of action to God. These qualities in turn will create a transformation in a person’s svabhava (internal and external behavior). He/she will develop qualities like Viveka(discrimination), Vairagya(dispassion), Indriya Nigraha(self-control), Titaksha(forbearance) and Mumukshutva (burning desire for Liberation) without which no further spiritual progress is possible.

The ultimate goal of life according to Hindu scriptures is Moksha-liberation. And Bheda and Abheda bhakti are two stages that ultimately lead a person to Moksha. Without the practice of Bheda bhakti and Nishkama Karma it is impossible to develop an understanding (viveka) that Jiva and Brahman are in essence one and not two separate things; one’s True self is identical with God. Without the development of this viveka-spiritual insight, it is not possible for a devotee to practice Abheda/Para Bhakti and hence cannot achieve Moksha. Adi Shankaracharya in vivekachudamani describes Para Bhakti as follows-

Moksha Kaarana Saamagryam Bhaktireva Gariyasi |
Svasvaroopaanusandhanam Bhaktirityabhidhiyate || (6)

“Among things conducive to Liberation, devotion (Bhakti) holds the supreme place. The seeking after one’s real nature is designated as devotion.”

Here, Bhakti is defined as “Svasvaroopaanusandhanam” meaning “seeking after” or “contemplating on” one’s own “True Self”.  A person cannot gain Moksha without practicing Abheda Bhakti-contemplation on True Self/Atman. And it is not possible for him to practice Abheda Bhakti without developing viveka and other qualities. Bhakti leads to Jnana and this Jnana in turn leads to Bhakti which finally leads to Jnana and Moksha. Jnana is “Viveka” in first case and “Atma Sakshatkara” in latter case. Bhakti is “Bheda Apara Bhakti” in first case and “Abhedha Para Bhakti” in the latter case.


Footnotes: 

1.       Narada Bhakti Sutra, Verse 2-3.

2.       Vyavaharika refers to Relative reality, Paramarthika refers to Absolute reality. For information refer to my article- “The Two Realities”.

3.       Srimad Bhagavatam, Verse 7.5.23.

4.       Panchopachara puja- offering of five items-Gandha(sandalwood paste),Pushpa (flower), Dhoopa(insense), Deepa(lamp), Naivedhya (food). Shodashopachara puja- offering of 16 items- Dhyana(meditation), Avahana(invocation), Aasana(seat), Padhya(water to wash feet), Arghya(sprinkling of water),Snana(water for bath), Vastra(clothes), Yagnopaveeta(sacred thread),Gandha(sandalwood paste),Pushpa (flower), Dhoopa(insense), Deepa(lamp), Naivedhya (food), Taambola(beetle leaves), Neerajana(camphor/aarti), Pushpaanjali(flower).

5.       Narada Bhakti Sutra, Verse 82.

6.       Vivekachudamani, Verse 31.